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This site recommends Javascript to function properly. The Audubon Naturalist Society actively opposed chemical spraying programs and recruited Carson to help publicize the U. She tried to enlist essayist E. White and a number of journalists and scientists to her cause. By , Carson had arranged a book deal, with plans to co-write with Newsweek science journalist Edwin Diamond. However, when The New Yorker commissioned a long and well-paid article on the topic from Carson, she began considering writing more than the introduction and conclusion as planned; soon it became a solo project.
Diamond would later write one of the harshest critiques of Silent Spring. As her research progressed, Carson found a sizable community of scientists who were documenting the physiological and environmental effects of pesticides. From reading the scientific literature and interviewing scientists, Carson found two scientific camps: those who dismissed the possible danger of pesticide spraying barring conclusive proof, and those who were open to the possibility of harm and willing to consider alternative methods, such as biological pest control.
By , the USDA 's Agricultural Research Service responded to the criticism by Carson and others with a public service film, Fire Ants on Trial ; Carson called it "flagrant propaganda" that ignored the dangers that spraying pesticides posed to humans and wildlife. That spring, Carson wrote a letter, published in The Washington Post , that attributed the recent decline in bird populations—in her words, the "silencing of birds"—to pesticide overuse.
Carson attended the ensuing FDA hearings on revising pesticide regulations; she was discouraged by the aggressive tactics of the chemical industry representatives, which included expert testimony that was firmly contradicted by the bulk of the scientific literature she had been studying. She also wondered about the possible "financial inducements behind certain pesticide programs".
Research at the National Library of Medicine of the National Institutes of Health brought Carson into contact with medical researchers investigating the gamut of cancer-causing chemicals. Of particular significance was the work of National Cancer Institute researcher and founding director of the environmental cancer section Wilhelm Hueper , who classified many pesticides as carcinogens.
Carson and her research assistant Jeanne Davis, with the help of NIH librarian Dorothy Algire, found evidence to support the pesticide-cancer connection; to Carson the evidence for the toxicity of a wide array of synthetic pesticides was clear-cut, though such conclusions were very controversial beyond the small community of scientists studying pesticide carcinogenesis.
By , Carson had sufficient research material and the writing was progressing rapidly. She had investigated hundreds of individual incidents of pesticide exposure and the resulting human sickness and ecological damage.
In January , she suffered an illness which kept her bedridden for weeks, delaying the book. As she was nearing full recovery in March, she discovered cysts in her left breast, requiring a mastectomy. By December that year, Carson discovered that she had breast cancer, which had metastasized.
However, further health troubles delayed the final revisions in and early Its title was inspired by a poem by John Keats , " La Belle Dame sans Merci ", which contained the lines "The sedge is wither'd from the lake, And no birds sing. By August , Carson agreed to the suggestion of her literary agent Marie Rodell: Silent Spring would be a metaphorical title for the entire book—suggesting a bleak future for the whole natural world—rather than a literal chapter title about the absence of birdsong.
The final writing was the first chapter, "A Fable for Tomorrow", which was intended to provide a gentle introduction to a serious topic. By mid, Brooks and Carson had largely finished the editing and were planning to promote the book by sending the manuscript to select individuals for final suggestions.
The overarching theme of Silent Spring is the powerful—and often negative—effect humans have on the natural world. DDT is a prime example, but other synthetic pesticides—many of which are subject to bioaccumulation —are scrutinized. Carson accuses the chemical industry of intentionally spreading disinformation and public officials of accepting industry claims uncritically.
Most of the book is devoted to pesticides' effects on natural ecosystems, but four chapters detail cases of human pesticide poisoning , cancer, and other illnesses attributed to pesticides.
In laboratory tests on animal subjects, DDT has produced suspicious liver tumors. Scientists of the Food and Drug Administration who reported the discovery of these tumors were uncertain how to classify them, but felt there was some "justification for considering them low grade hepatic cell carcinomas. Carson predicts increased consequences in the future, especially since targeted pests may develop resistance to pesticides and weakened ecosystems fall prey to unanticipated invasive species.
The book closes with a call for a biotic approach to pest control as an alternative to chemical pesticides. Carson never called for an outright ban on DDT. She said in Silent Spring that even if DDT and other insecticides had no environmental side effects, their indiscriminate overuse was counterproductive because it would create insect resistance to pesticides, making them useless in eliminating the target insect populations:.
No responsible person contends that insect-borne disease should be ignored. The question that has now urgently presented itself is whether it is either wise or responsible to attack the problem by methods that are rapidly making it worse.
The world has heard much of the triumphant war against disease through the control of insect vectors of infection, but it has heard little of the other side of the story—the defeats, the short-lived triumphs that now strongly support the alarming view that the insect enemy has been made actually stronger by our efforts.
Even worse, we may have destroyed our very means of fighting. Carson also said that "Malaria programmes are threatened by resistance among mosquitoes", [31] and quoted the advice given by the director of Holland's Plant Protection Service: "Practical advice should be 'Spray as little as you possibly can' rather than 'Spray to the limit of your capacity'. Pressure on the pest population should always be as slight as possible. Carson and the others involved with publication of Silent Spring expected fierce criticism and were concerned about the possibility of being sued for libel.
Carson was undergoing radiation therapy for her cancer and expected to have little energy to defend her work and respond to critics. In preparation for the anticipated attacks, Carson and her agent attempted to amass prominent supporters before the book's release.
Most of the book's scientific chapters were reviewed by scientists with relevant expertise, among whom Carson found strong support. Douglas , a long-time environmental advocate who had argued against the court's rejection of the Long Island pesticide spraying case and had provided Carson with some of the material included in her chapter on herbicides.
Though Silent Spring had generated a fairly high level of interest based on pre-publication promotion, this became more intense with its serialization, which began in the June 16, , issue. Comanche alone survived. The site of the battle was first preserved as a United States national cemetery in to protect the graves of the 7th Cavalry troopers. In , it was re-designated as the Custer Battlefield National Monument , reflecting its association with Custer.
In , Major Marcus Reno was re-interred in the cemetery with honors, including an eleven-gun salute. Beginning in the early s, there was concern within the National Park Service over the name Custer Battlefield National Monument failing to adequately reflect the larger history of the battle between two cultures. Hearings on the name change were held in Billings on June 10, , and during the following months Congress renamed the site the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.
United States memorialization of the battlefield began in with a temporary monument to the U. In , the current marble obelisk was erected in their honor. In , marble blocks were added to mark the places where the U.
Nearly years later, ideas about the meaning of the battle have become more inclusive. The United States government acknowledged that Native American sacrifices also deserved recognition at the site.
The bill changing the name of the national monument also authorized an Indian Memorial to be built near Last Stand Hill in honor of Lakota and Cheyenne warriors. The commissioned work by native artist Colleen Cutschall is shown in the photograph at right. On Memorial Day , in consultation with tribal representatives, the U. As of December , a total of ten warrior markers have been added three at the Reno—Benteen Defense Site and seven on the Little Bighorn Battlefield.
The Indian Memorial, themed "Peace Through Unity" l is an open circular structure that stands 75 yards 69 metres from the 7th Cavalry obelisk.
Its walls have the names of some Indians who died at the site, as well as native accounts of the battle. The open circle of the structure is symbolic, as for many tribes, the circle is sacred. The "spirit gate" window facing the Cavalry monument is symbolic as well, welcoming the dead cavalrymen into the memorial.
Photo taken in by H. He described the death of a Sioux sharpshooter killed after being seen too often by the enemy. Indian Memorial by Colleen Cutschall []. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For the film serial, see Custer's Last Stand serial.
Lakota Dakota Northern Cheyenne Arapaho. United States Crow scouts Arikara scouts. George A. Great Sioux War of Hurrah boys, we've got them! We'll finish them up and then go home to our station. This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. December Learn how and when to remove this template message.
Looking in the direction of the Indian village and the deep ravine. Photo by Stanley J. Morrow, spring Taken November Mitch Boyer was one of the scouts who warned Custer about the size of the Indian village age at time of photo unknown. Mitch Bouyer marker on Deep Ravine trail.
This Helena, Montana newspaper article did not report the battle until July 6, referring to a July 3 story from a Bozeman, Montana newspaper—itself eight days after the event. The New York Times also appears to have first reported the event on July 6. The earliest journalistic communication cited in the Times article was dated July 2—a full week after the massacre. Crow warrior Two Leggings joined the U.
Two Belly had given him and nearly 30 other Crows a lecture and explained how the Sioux had taken the hunting grounds of the Crow. Red Horse pictographic account of dead U. Main article: Black Hills land claim. See also: Cultural depictions of George Armstrong Custer.
Sheridan Company L , the brother of Lt. Philip H. Sheridan , served only seven months in —67 before becoming permanent aide to his brother but remained on the rolls until Ilsley Company E was aide to Maj.
Gen John Pope from to , when he finally joined his command. Tourtelotte Company G never joined the 7th. Louis and rejoined his company immediately. A "village" was a collection of tipis , housing a group of Indians under the leadership of a chief, including those of tribes other than the chief's.
A village would be created wherever a group stopped by simply erecting the tipis and could last from a single night to several weeks. Young warriors without a tipi would generally create lean-tos or sleep in the open.
When the chief decided that it was time to move on the villagers simply struck their tipis, tied the tipi poles to their horses so as to form a travois for their goods and children, and followed the chief.
The term "village", therefore, refers to the group while moving OR encamped. Sitting Bull's village was multi-tribal, consisted of "a thousand tipis [that] were assembled in six horseshoe-shaped semicircles", had a population of approx.
Sioux Nation of Indians , U. This case confirmed the court's view that the government can treat Indian reservations like private property and take them by eminent domain if just compensation is paid. Otis of the 1st Cavalry was promoted to replace Custer effective June 25, , but did not report until February Two West Point graduates designated for the 7th Cavalry were advanced to 1st lieutenant effective 10 days after their graduation.
Four others appointed to other regiments, along with eight experienced 2nd lieutenants, were transferred and designated one to each company of the 7th. However, five declined the appointment, replaced by 2nd lieutenants of infantry and unappointed new officers in July and August Only three replacements were able to report while the 7th was still in the field. For the army, far more was at stake than individual reputations, as the future of the service could be affected.
On January 2, General Sheridan had quoted Lee's report of agent malfeasance in a supplement to his annual report, which continued the General's running battle with the Bureau of Indian Affairs and the Department of the Interior.
At the same time, a House committee was busy debating a new appropriations bill that required a major reorganization of the army. One proposal would lop off entire regiments, including two cavalry regiments. Another would set the line officers those in the field from Major down back a few years in the promotion schedule.
The total reduction in officers was proposed to be , almost 25 percent of the total. The military strongly wanted to avoid confirmation of incompetency or cowardice—rumors of which were circulating around the impending court of inquiry in Chicago.
Donovan To say or write such put one in the position of standing against bereaved Libbie". Smith, Gene op cit. Lt Edward Godfrey reported finding a dead 7th Cavalry horse shot in the head , a grain sack, and a carbine at the mouth of the Rosebud River.
He conjectured that a soldier had escaped Custer's fight and rafted across the river, abandoning his played-out horse. Comanche was taken back to the steamer Far West and returned to Fort Abraham Lincoln to be nursed back to health.
Western Historical Quarterly , Vol. Lincoln and London. The Crow Indians' Own Stories. New York. Wolves for the Blue Soldiers. Journal of American Studies , Vol. The making of the Crow Nation in America, — Cambridge, p. Washington , p. Retrieved December 7, Laws and Treaties. Washington, pp. Archaeological Perspectives on the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN Ian Allan Publishing. Canadian Traders among the Mandan and Hidatsa Indians, — Norman and London, p.
The Making of the Crow Nation in America, — Encyclopedia of the Great Plains. Archived from the original on June 26, Retrieved May 6, Treaty with the Crows, The Journal of American History.
Cambridge,, p. Contributions to the Historical Society of Montana. Lincoln and London, , pp. Retrieved March 12, Centennial Campaign: The Sioux War of January 30, Archived from the original on December 12, Retrieved March 15, Carroll, July Retrieved March 28, Conversations with Crazy Horse. Archived from the original on September 6, Retrieved August 19, Retrieved December 10, Archived from the original on January 21, Retrieved January 18, July Retrieved January 17, Editorial Galaxia.
Custer's Last Campaign. University of Nebraska Press. US: Bison Books. Reno, 7th U. Archaeology, History and Custer's Last Battle. Archived from the original on June 24, A Terrible Glory. Little, Brown and Company. A Good Year to Die. Random House. Son of the Morning Star.
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